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Vitamins

 


1, Vitamins

A vitamin is an organic molecule (or related set of molecules) that is an essential micronutrient that an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism, either at all or not in sufficient quantities, and therefore must be obtained through the diet. Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it is not a vitamin in the first instance but is in the second. The term vitamin does not include the three other groups of essential nutrients: minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids  Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, vitamin E consists of four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. The thirteen vitamins required by human metabolism are: vitamin A (as all-trans-retinol, all-trans-retinyl-esters, as well as all-trans-beta-carotene and other provitamin A carotenoids), vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B7 (biotin), vitamin B9 (folic acid or folate), vitamin B12 (cobalamins), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D (calciferols), vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), and vitamin K (quinones)

A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. ... By convention the word vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids. Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present.

Vitamins are micronutrients and  don’t provide energy themselves, but they help to get energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

• 13 essential vitamins our body needs to remain healthy. 

Fat Soluble: 

Dissolve in fat, not water, and then are stored in our body.

They include vitamins A, D, E and K. 

Water Soluble:

Dissolve in water and are not stored in significant amounts in our body.

Water-soluble vitamins include: vitamin C and eight B-group vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins travel in the blood.  

These are readily excreted from the body through urine.

Fat-soluble are stored in the liver and fatty tissues and are not readily excreted from the body.

1, Vitamin A» is found both as pre-formed vitamin, retinol, and a pro-vitamin, beta carotene, some of which is converted to retinol in the intestinal mucosa.

Functions: 

Vision 

Generates pigments for the retina

Maintains surface lining of eyes

Bone growth, reproduction, skin health,immunity 

It may protect against cancers such as bronchial cancers.

                       Source of vitamin A

Animal Sources  Plant Sources 

Eggs

Meat

Cheese

Milk

Liver

Kidney

Cod liver oil Carrots

Sweet Potatoes

Pink Grapefruit

Apricots

Broccoli

Spinach

Pumpkin



Signs of Deficiency

Night blindness, conjunctival xerosis, Bigot's spots  and Corneal xerosis are predominantly ocular. 

Decreased resistance to infections

Extremely dry skin, hair or nails loss 

Hyper vitaminosis A leads to toxic symptoms:

Dry, itchy skin, Headaches and fatigue

Hair loss, Liver damage, Blurred vision

Loss of appetite, Skin coloration, Birth defect 



2, Vitamin D

Vitamin D (calciferol) is another fat-soluble vitamin that is chemically related to steroids and

essential for the normal formation of bones and teeth and for the absorption of calcium and

phosphorus from the GI tract. Ultraviolet rays activate a form of cholesterol in an oil of the skin

and convert it to a form of the vitamin, which is then absorbed. Deficiency of the vitamin results

in rickets in children, the destruction of bony tissue, and osteoporosis. 

Vitamin D is used for the prophylaxis and treatment of rickets, osteomalacia, and other

hypocalcemic disorders (tetany) and hypoparathyroidism. Vitamin D3 is the predominant form of

vitamin D of animal origin. It is found in most fish liver oils, butter, bran, and egg yolks. It is

formed in skin exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet rays.  

Hypervitaminosis D produces a toxicity syndrome that may result in hypercalcemia, malabsorption

(which can lead to constipation), kidney stones, and calcium deposits on bones. Vitamin D therapy

is contraindicated in hypercalcemia, malabsorption syndrome, and renal dysfunction, or if an

individual has evidence of vitamin D toxicity or abnormal sensitivity to the eff ects of vitamin D.

Vitamin D2 is also called ergocalciferol. 


 Vitamin D- It is obtained by our body when exposed to sunlight. Its deficiency causes improper growth of bones, soft bones in kids , rickets

Vitamin D can be made in the skin from a cholesterol-like precursor (7-dehydrocholesterol) by exposure to sunlight 

Can be provided pre-formed in the diet. 

The nutritionally important forms of Vitamin D in man are Calciferol (Vitamin D2) and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3).

Functions of vitamin D

Calcium metabolism (main function): 

Vitamin D regulates Ca++ levels in the blood and tissues. 

Essential for normal bone growth during childhood and for maintaining bone density and strength during adulthood.

Integrated function with parathyroid hormone in stabilization of Ca++ level in blood. 

Regulation of cell growth and development (particularly WBCs and epithelial cells).

Deficiency of vitamin D leads to:

Rickets-Bones become weak and are unable to support the weight of the body. This causes the skeleton to become deformed.

Osteomalacia: softening of the bones caused by impaired bone metabolism due to inadequate levels of phosphate, calcium, and vitamin D

Osteoporosis: a condition characterized by fragile bones due to decreased bone density that can be easily fractured 

Teeth may fail to develop.

3, Vitamin E  (tocopherol) is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for normal reproduction, muscle

development, and resistance of erythrocytes to hemolysis. It is an intracellular antioxidant and acts

to maintain the stability of polyunsaturated fatty acids. 

Deficiency of vitamin E is rare, but can lead to anemia in babies, especially if premature. In adults,

erythrocytes may have a shortened lifespan, which may result in muscle degeneration of vascular

system abnormalities and kidney damage. 

Vitamin E is relatively non-toxic, and may cause problems only in the large-dosage range of about

300 mg per day (RDA is only 10 mg per day). At this range, interference with thyroid function

and a prolonging of blood clotting time may occur. Sources of vitamin E include vegetable oils

such as soybean, corn, cottonseed, and sun flower, as well as nuts, seeds, and wheat germ.

Vitamin E- Deficiency of vitamin E leads to weakness in muscles and increases the fragility of red blood cells.

Uses as an Antioxidant 

Reduce formation of free radical which can lead to toxicity and cancer.

May reduce the risk of heart disease

Promotes normal growth and development

Also been known to aid the process of wound healing 

Source of Vitamin E

Wheat germ oil

Vegetable oils

Nuts and seeds

Whole grains

Egg yolk

Leafy green vegetable

Vitamin E deficiency 

Severe vitamin E deficiencies are rare

Hemolytic anemia- due to oxidative damage to red blood cells 

Inability to concentrate

Muscle weakness

Neuromuscular problems 

Neurological problems 

Retinopathy

Impairment of the immune response

4,vitamin k 

Vitamin K is essential for the synthesis of prothrombin in the liver. Th e naturally occurring forms,

also called quinones, are vitamin K1 (phylloquinone), which occurs in green plants, and vitamin

K2 (menaquinone), which is formed as the result of bacterial action in the intestinal tract. Watersoluble


forms of vitamins K1 and K2 are also available. The fat-soluble synthetic compound,

menadione (vitamin K3), is about twice as potent biologically as the naturally occurring vitamins

K1 and K2, on a weight basis. 

Vitamin K is used for coagulation disorder and vitamin K deficiency. 

It is given prophylactically to infants to prevent hemorrhagic disease of the newborn. Natural

vitamin K is stored in the body and is not toxic 

Vitamin K- It plays an important role in blood clotting. Deficiency of vitamin K increases the time taken by blood to clot. Severe deficiency may cause death due to excessive blood loss in case of a cut or an injury.

Although these compounds are required in very small quantities by our body to perform several biological functions, and their deficiency may lead to severe diseases. Get in touch with our expert faculty at Byju’s to know more.

There are three forms of vitamin K:

Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) found in plant foods.

Vitamin K2 (Menaquinone) from animal and bacterial sources.

Synthetic Vitamin K3 (Menadione).

Foods rich in Vitamin K:

Spinach, Green cabbage, Turnip, Parsley, lettuce, beef liver, green tea (in decreasing order) etc

Functions of Vitamin K 

1, Blood coagulation 

Production of proteins that are part of the coagulation cascade in the blood. Several proteins promote coagulation  (prothrombin, VII, IX, X) while others slow it down (proteins C and S). Thus, activity of vitamin K balances the two opposing sides of coagulation system in blood.

       2.  Bone metabolism 

Bone Gla-protein (Osteocalcin): Regulate incorporation of  calcium Phosphate into bones.

Vitamin K deficiency 

1. Uncontrolled internal bleeding.

2. Cartilage calcification and malformation of developing bone.

3. Deposition of insoluble calcium salts in the arterial vessel walls. 

Factors that affect the level of vit K in the body 

1. Bile acid sequestrants (Cholestyramine) and Aspirin: Affect absorption. 

2. Weight Loss Products (Chitosan, Orlistat, and olestra): Affect absorption.

3. Mineral oil laxatives: Affect absorption. 

X-rays and Radiation: Deplete vitamin K levels and raise vitamin K requirements 

Vitamins are classified by their solubility, which is the vitamin's ability to dissolve into another substance. Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins that dissolve in fat and include vitamins A, D, E and K. ... ' 

The B-complex vitamins are important for energy. Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is also a water-soluble vitamin.

2, Minerals 

The major minerals are defined as those requiring an intake of more than 100 mg/day. The six

major minerals are calcium, phosphorus, chloride, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.


Calcium (Ca) is the fifth-most abundant element in the human body and is present mainly in the

bones. The body requires calcium ions for the transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction,

blood coagulation, and cardiac functions. It is a component of extracellular fluid and of soft tissue

cells. 

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Benign hypercalcemia due to excessive absorption of calcium may result in calcification of soft

tissues and renal damage. Lack of calcium in the diet results in osteoporosis, in which bone is less

dense, and therefore, brittle and weak. 

Available calcium preparations are: -calcium gluconate, calcium citrate… 

Zinc (Zn) is essential for several body enzymes, growth, glucose tolerance, wound healing, and

taste acuity. Nearly all functional units of the immune system are adversely affected by zinc

deficiency. It is also used in numerous pharmaceutics, such as zinc acetate, zinc oxide, zinc

permanganate, and zinc stearate. The best sources are protein foods. Zinc deficiency is

characterized by abnormal fatigue, decreased alertness, a decrease in taste and odor sensitivity,

poor appetite, retarded growth, delayed sexual maturity, prolonged healing of wounds, and

susceptibility to infection and injury. Excess zinc supplementation can be dangerous as it can cause

an increase in copper excretion, leading to copper deficiency. Other problems with excessive zinc

intake are atherosclerosis due to a rise in cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and gastric irritation.

Minerals are any substances that meet all of the following criteria:

1. solid

2. inorganic (or identical to an inorganic mineral). Some minerals, like our teeth, would not be here without our organic processes, but because the apatite (the mineral that makes up our teeth) in our teeth is identical to inorganic apatite, we still consider the apatite of our teeth to be a mineral.

3. natural (or made in a way that mimics nature). Some minerals are made in labs, by people, but because they are made using the same processes that nature uses, we can still consider them minerals. A "synthetic diamond" that is chemically and structurally the same as a natural diamond is still a mineral. However, cubic zirconia, which is made only by people and not by nature, is not a mineral.

4. chemically homogeneous. This means that the mineral contains the same chemicals throughout. Another way to think of this is that you can write one chemical formula that describes the entire mineral (see some examples in the table below). Minerals can contain tiny amounts of impurities. These are elements present in such small quantities that they do not change the mineral's formula but can change the mineral's properties. For example, tiny amounts of impurities can change the color of quartz (a mineral) from clear to pink, or blue, or purple, but the formula remains SiO2.

5. crystalline. This means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in an orderly and repeating pattern. For example, the chlorine (Cl) and sodium (Na) atoms in the mineral halite are arranged in cubes and these cubes repeat throughout the mineral (see Figure 1 above).

Please note: the "minerals" in a bottle of vitamins and minerals are not real minerals (according to our definition). They are elements that may have been extracted from minerals. This is an example of a word that has a scientific definition that is different from the common-use definition.


"A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes" (Nickel, E. H., 1995).

 

"Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and predictable chemical composition and physical properties." (O' Donoghue, 1990).

 

"A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid, inorganically formed, with a definite chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement" (Mason, et al, 1968).

 

"These... minerals ...can be distinguished from one another by individual characteristics that arise directly from the kinds of atoms they contain and the arrangements these atoms make inside them" (Sinkankas, 1966).

 

"A mineral is a body produced by the processes of inorganic nature, having usually a definite chemical composition and, if formed under favorable conditions, a certain characteristic atomic structure which is expressed in its crystalline form and other physical properties" (Dana & Ford, 1932).

 

"Every distinct chemical compound occurring in inorganic nature, having a definite molecular structure or system of crystallization and well-defined physical properties, constitutes a mineral species" (Brush & Penfield, 1898).

Major minerals are essential nutrients found in the human body in amounts larger than five grams. While all the major minerals help to maintain the balances described, each also plays special roles of its own.

MAJOR MINERALS           

               Major minerals are essential nutrients found in the human body in amounts larger than five grams. While all the major minerals help to maintain the balances described, each also plays special roles of its own.

Calcium           

               Nearly ninety-nine percent of calcium is stored in the bones, where it plays two important roles. First, it is a basic part of bone structure. Second, bone calcium serves as a “bank” that can release calcium to the body fluids if the slightest drop in blood calcium concentration occurs. The other one percent of the body’s calcium is in the body fluid. This tiny amount plays major roles such as: maintains normal blood pressure, allows secretion of hormones, and plays an essential role in the clotting of blood.

Phosphorus

               Eighty-five percent of phosphorus is found combined with calcium in bones and teeth. The rest of the percentage of phosphorus is found in the blood where its functions are critical to life. Phosphorus salts buffer the acid-base balance of cellular fluids. Each cell also depends on phosphorus as a part of its genetic material, thus making phosphorus essential for the growth and renewal of tissues.

Magnesium

               Over half of the body’s magnesium is in the bones. The rest of it is in the muscles, heart, liver and other soft tissues. One percent is found in the body fluids. Magnesium is critical to the operation of hundreds of enzymes and it directly affects the metabolism of potassium, calcium and vitamin D. Magnesium acts in the cells of all the soft tissues, where it is part of the protein-making machinery and is necessary for the release of energy. Magnesium helps muscles relax after contraction and promotes resistance to tooth decay by holding calcium in tooth enamel.

TRACE MINERALS

               Trace minerals are essential nutrients found in the human body in amounts less than five grams. An obstacle to determining the precise roles of the trace elements is the difficulty of providing an experimental diet lacking a certain element under study. Although small amounts of these minerals exist in the body, trace minerals play important roles as do major minerals.

Iodine

               Iodine’s’ principle role in human nutrition makes obtaining the tiny amount of iodine critical. Iodine is a part of thyroxine, the hormone responsible for regulation the basal metabolic rate. It must be available for thyroxine to be synthesized. When iodine concentration of the blood is low, the cells of the thyroid gland enlarge in an attempt to trap as many particles of iodine as possible. Sometimes the gland enlarges until it makes a visible lump in the neck, called a goiter.

Iron

               Most of the iron in the body is a component of the proteins hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells. Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. Myoglobin carries and stores oxygen for the muscles. Both hemoglobin and myoglobin contain iron, and the iron helps them to hold and carry oxygen and then release it. All the body’s cells need oxygen to help them handle the carbon and hydrogen atoms they release as they break down every nutrient. Besides helping hemoglobin to carry oxygen around and myoglobin to hold it in muscles, iron helps many enzymes in energy pathways to use oxygen. Iron is also needed to make new cells, amino acids, hormones, and neurotransmitters.

Zinc

               Although Zinc occurs in a very small quantity in the body, it works with proteins in every organ. It helps more than one hundred enzymes to: make parts of cells’ genetic material; help the pancreas with its digestive functions; help metabolize carbohydrates, proteins, and fats; release vitamin A from storage in the liver. Zinc also affects behavior and learning, assists in immune function, and are essential to wound healing, sperm production, and fetal development.

               Minerals in the body, whether they are found in large or tiny amounts, have their very own way of interacting with the body to keep it in balance. Understanding the role that each of these minerals play can keep the average human in good heath by consuming the right amount of each element daily.

ir functions?

Just like vitamins, minerals help your body grow, develop, and stay healthy. The body uses minerals to perform many different functions — from building strong bones to transmitting nerve impulses. Some minerals are even used to make hormones or maintain a normal heartbeat.

 you have a day?


The amount of minerals we need is actually very small – much smaller than the amounts of carbohydrates, protein, and fats required for a healthy diet. Most adults need about 1,000 milligrams of calcium per day (IOM 2011), but only about 10 to 15 milligrams of iron and zinc per day 


3,A lipid 

Lipids are the only macromolecule that does not undergo polymerization. The base compound for all lipids is the three-carbon alcohol glycerol. Lipids are categorized as fats, steroids and phospholipids. Fats are formed by the addition of three fatty acids to glycerol via an ester bond, which occurs from joining a hydroxyl group to a carboxyl group. In phospholipids a fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group. Steroids such as cholesterol contain a four-carbon ring skeleton.

Lipid is a type of organic molecule found in living things. It is oily or waxy. Fats are made from lipid molecules. ... Lipids are long chains of carbon and hydrogen molecules. Lipids are classified as simple and complex.

Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the structure and function of living cells. Examples of lipids include fats, oils, waxes, certain vitamins (such as A, D, E and K), hormones and most of the cell membrane that is not made up of protein.

Lipids are not soluble in water as they are non-polar, but are thus soluble in non-polar solvents such as chloroform.

 emportant 

Lipids are biological molecules such as fats, oils, phospholipids and steroids.

They are important for cell membranes, energy storage, insulation, cell-cell communication

 Lipid Biological Functions 

Role of lipids in the body. ... 

Chemical messengers. ... 

Storage and provision of energy. ... 

Maintenance of temperature. ... 

Membrane lipid layer formation. ... 

Cholesterol formation. ... 

 Lipid metabolism begins in the intestine where ingested triglycerides are broken down into smaller chain fatty acids and subsequently into monoglyceride molecules by pancreatic lipases, enzymes that break down fats after they are emulsified by bile salts. When food reaches the small intestine in the form of chyme, a digestive hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK) is released by intestinal cells in the intestinal mucosa. CCK stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder to release stored bile salts into the intestine. CCK also travels to the brain, where it can act as a hunger suppressant 

5, Enzymes

 Definition 

An enzyme is a protein or RNA produced by living cells, which is highly specific and highly catalytic to its substrates. Enzymes are a very important type of macromolecular biological catalysts. Due to the action of enzymes, chemical reactions in organisms can also be carried out efficiently and specifically under mild conditions. 

Enzymes help speed up chemical reactions in the human body. They bind to molecules and alter them in specific ways. They are essential for respiration, digesting food, muscle and nerve function, among thousands of other roles

The digestive system - enzymes help the body break down larger complex molecules into smaller molecules, such as glucose, so that the body can use them as fuel.

DNA replication - each cell in your body contains DNA. Each time a cell divides, that DNA needs to be copied. Enzymes help in this process by unwinding the DNA coils and copying the information.

Function of  enzymes 

What enzymes do?

Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells.

They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion and metabolism.

Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces that are more easily absorbed by the body. Other enzymes help bind two molecules together to produce a new molecule. Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction.

The molecules that an enzyme works with are called substrates. The substrates bind to a region on the enzyme called the active site.

There are two theories explaining the enzyme-substrate interaction.

In the lock-and-key model, the active site of an enzyme is precisely shaped to hold specific substrates. In the induced-fit model, the active site and substrate don't fit perfectly together; instead, they both alter their shape to connect.

Whatever the case, the reactions that occur accelerate greatly — over a millionfold — once the substrates bind to the active site of the enzyme. The chemical reactions result in a new product or molecule that then separates from the enzyme, which goes on to catalyze other reactions.

Here's an example: When the salivary enzyme amylase binds to a starch, it catalyzes hydrolysis (the breakdown of a compound due to a reaction with water), resulting in maltose, or malt sugar.

The digestive system - enzymes help the body break down larger complex molecules into smaller molecules, such as glucose, so that the body can use them as fuel.

DNA replication - each cell in your body contains DNA. Each time a cell divides, that DNA needs to be copied. Enzymes help in this process by unwinding the DNA coils and copying the information.

Enzyme Classification

Enzyme class Reaction type Description 

EC 1 

Oxidoreductases 

  Catalyze redox reaction and can be categorized into oxidase and reductase. 

EC 2

Transferases 

  Catalyze the transfer or exchange of certain groups among some substrates 

EC 3 

Hydrolases 

  Accelerate the hydrolysis of substrates 

EC 4 

Lyases 

  Promote the removal of a group from the substrate to leave a double bond reaction or catalyze its reverse reaction 

EC 5

Isomerases 

  Facilitate the conversion of isoisomers, geometric isomers or optical isomers. 

EC 6 

Ligases 

  Catalyze the synthesis of two molecular substrates into one molecular compound with the release energy 

EC 7 

Translocases 

Catalyze the movement of ions or molecules across membranes or their separation within membranes 


Classification 

According to the type of reactions that the enzymes catalyze, enzymes are classified into seven categories, which are oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, and translocases. Oxidoreductases, transferases and hydrolases are the most abundant forms of enzymes. Individual enzyme classes are further classified systematically based on the chemical name of the substrate and its reaction mechanism. 

According to the unified classification principle of enzymes published by the International Society of Biochemistry, each group of enzymes in the above seven categories can be further divided into several subgroups according to the characteristics of the functional groups or bonds in the substrates. In order to show the properties of substrates or reactants more accurately, each subclass is further divided into subclasses and directly contains a quantity of enzymes. 

Moreover, on the basis of the molecular composition, enzymes can be divided into pure enzymes and binding enzymes. Enzymes containing only protein are called pure enzymes. Binding enzymes are composed of proteins and cofactors. Only when the two components are combined, can the enzyme have catalytic activity. 

 Chylomicrons contain triglycerides, cholesterol molecules, and other apolipoproteins (protein molecules). They function to carry these water-insoluble molecules from the intestine, through the lymphatic system, and into the bloodstream, which carries the lipids to adipose tissue for storage.

Together, the pancreatic lipases and bile salts break down triglycerides into free fatty acids. These fatty acids can be transported across the intestinal membrane. However, once they cross the membrane, they are recombined to again form triglyceride molecules. Within the intestinal cells, these triglycerides are packaged along with cholesterol molecules in phospholipid vesicles called chylomicrons. The chylomicrons enable fats and cholesterol to move within the aqueous environment of your lymphatic and circulatory systems. Chylomicrons leave the enterocytes by exocytosis and enter the lymphatic system via lacteals in the villi of the intestine. From the lymphatic system, the chylomicrons are transported to the circulatory system. Once in the circulation, they can either go to the liver or be stored in fat cells (adipocytes) that comprise adipose (fat) tissue found throughout the bod nflammation. ... 

6,   Allergy

The definition of Allergy occurs when a parson’s react to substance in the environment that are harmless to most people. This substance are known as allegense and are found in dust mites, pollen, insects, ticks, moulds, foods, and some medication

Two major categories are seasonal allergic rhinitis (SAR) and perennial allergic rhinitis (PAR). While SAR is associated with exposure to pollen at certain seasons PAR occurs almost all around the year. 



Allergic treatment 

1. Antihistamines. Antihistamines can help to treat most minor allergic reactions regardless of the cause. ... 

2. Nasal decongestants. ... 

3. Anti-inflammatory medication. ... 

4. Avoid the allergen. ... 

5. Use a saline sinus rinse. ... 

6. Treating environmental allergies. ... 

7. Treating allergies on the skin. ... 

8. Treating severe allergies.

If you experience an allergic reaction and you don’t know what’s causing it,. if you may need to see your doctor to determine what the cause of your allergy is, if you are known allergy and experience symptoms, may may not need to seek medical care if your symptoms are mild. 

In most cases, over-the-counter antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine (Bendaryl) can be affective for controlling mild allergic reaction 

People with known allergic medication with them, such as an epinephrine auto-injector  (EpiPen). Epinephrine is a resue drug ‘’ because it opine the airwaye and raises blood pressure

The person is unconscious, you should;

Lay them flat on their back

Elevate ther legs or upper extremity

Cover them with blanket

This is will help prevent shock



7, Nucleotide

Nucleotides are molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate group. They are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA. 

They are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids; they are composed of three sub unit molecules: a nitrogenous base (also known as nucleobase), a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate group. The four nucleotides present in DNA are guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine; in RNA uracil is used in place of thymine. 

Nucleotides also play a central role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They carry packets of chemical energy—in the form of the nucleoside triphosphates Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) and Uridine triphosphate (UTP)—throughout the cell to the many cellular functions that demand energy, which include: synthesizing amino acids, proteins and cell membranes and parts, moving the cell and moving cell parts (both internally and intercellularly), dividing the cell, etc.[1] In addition, nucleotides participate in cell signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate or cGMP and cyclic adenosine monophosphate or cAMP), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (e.g. coenzyme A, FAD, FMN, NAD, and NADP+). 

In experimental biochemistry, nucleotides can be radiolabeled with radionuclides to yield radionucleotides

A nucleotide is composed of three distinctive chemical sub-units: a five-carbon sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base—which two together are called a nucleoside—and one phosphate group. With all three joined, a nucleotide is also termed a "nucleoside monophosphate". The chemistry sources ACS Style Guide[2] and IUPAC Gold Book[3] prescribe that a nucleotide should contain only one phosphate group, but common usage in molecular biology textbooks often extends the definition to include molecules with two, or with three, phosphates.[1][4][5][6] Thus, the terms "nucleoside diphosphate" or "nucleoside triphosphate" may also indicate nucleotides. 

Nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base—i.e., the nitrogenous base molecule, also known as a nucleobase—and are termed ribonucleotides if the sugar is ribose, or deoxyribonucleotides if the sugar is deoxyribose. Individual phosphate molecules repetitively connect the sugar-ring molecules in two adjacent nucleotide monomers, thereby connecting the nucleotide monomers of a nucleic acid end-to-end into a long chain. These chain-joins of sugar and phosphate molecules create a 'backbone' strand for a single- or double helix. In any one strand, the chemical orientation (directionality) of the chain-joins runs from the 5'-end to the 3'-end (read: 5 prime-end to 3 prime-end)—referring to the five carbon sites on sugar molecules in adjacent nucleotides. In a double helix, the two strands are oriented in opposite directions, which permits base pairing and complementarity between the base-pairs, all which is essential for replicating or transcribing the encoded information found in DNA. 

Unlike in nucleic acid nucleotides, singular cyclic nucleotides are formed when the phosphate group is bound twice to the same sugar molecule, i.e., at the corners of the sugar hydroxyl groups.[1] These individual nucleotides function in cell metabolism rather than the nucleic acid structures of long-chain molecules. 

Nucleic acids then are polymeric macromolecules assembled from nucleotides, the monomer-units of nucleic acids. The purine bases adenine and guanine and pyrimidine base cytosine occur in both DNA and RNA, while the pyrimidine bases thymine (in DNA) and uracil (in RNA) occur in just one. Adenine forms a base pair with thymine with two hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine with three hydrogen bonds. 

What is difference between nucleoside and nucleotide? 

Nucleotides and nucleosides are both monomeric units of nucleic acid. They are often confused with one another, because the difference is slight: nucleotides are defined by their bond with a phosphate -- whereas nucleosides lack a phosphate bond entirely. This structural difference changes the way the units bond with other molecules, as well as the way they help make up DNA and RNA structures.

Nucleoside vs. Nucleotide. A nucleoside consists of a nitrogenous base covalently attached to a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) but without the phosphate group. A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and one to three phosphate groups.

Nucleoside

Nucleoside, a structural subunit of nucleic acids, the heredity-controlling components of all living cells, consisting of a molecule of sugar linked to a nitrogen-containing organic ring compound.

Nucleotides are named for their specific bases, with "-os-" added in the middle (except when uracil is the base). For example, a nucleotide diphosphate containing adenine is adenosine diphosphate, or ADP. If ADP collects another phosphate group, it comes adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, which is essential in energy transfer and utilization in all living things. In addition, uracil diphosphate (UDP) transfers monomeric sugar units to growing glycogen chains, and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a "second messenger" that relays signals 

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